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This is a FAQ about Nim programming language. If you have a question about Nim, please ask it in Nim forum.
People don't use Nim says case insensitivity cause confusion but I have never heard Nim's style insensitivity cause any problems from people use Nim.
It makes managing heap memory easy.
No. If you say Nim is a transpiler, is GCC a transpiler from C to assembler?
Unsigned int types are used for algorithms that randomize bit patterns. For example:
Also used for protocols, formats or C libraries that requires unsigned int. For example, many image file formats or pixel buffer format uses 8 bit unsigned ints for RGB color value.
You can write it as x in [a, b].
If type of x is int8, int16, uint8, uint16, char or enum, you can write it using set type:
For example:
let x = 'a' doAssert x in {'a'..'z', '0'..'9'} type Direction = enum north, east, south, west let d = Direction.east doAssert d in {east, west}
You can write it as x in a..b.
On console, run nim -v.
Example output:
$ nim -v Nim Compiler Version 2.2.0 [Linux: amd64] Compiled at 2024-10-02 Copyright (c) 2006-2024 by Andreas Rumpf git hash: 78983f1876726a49c69d65629ab433ea1310ece1 active boot switches: -d:release
In Nim code, you can use NimVersion const string or NimMajor, NimMinor and NimPatch const int in system module.
echo NimVersion echo (NimMajor, NimMinor, NimPatch)
Use repr.
Example code:
type Foo = ref object x: int let a = Foo(x: 123) echo a.repr let ary = [Foo(x: 111), Foo(x: 222)] echo ary.repr var x = [0, 100, 300] let ptrTox = x[1].addr echo ptrTox.repr
Example output:
ref 0x7f09112ea050 --> [x = 123] [ref 0x7f09112ea070 --> [x = 111], ref 0x7f09112ea090 --> [x = 222]] ptr 0x55eda6b61108 --> 100
You can also dereference it if it is not nil and referencing valid memory location.
type Foo = ref object x: int var a = Foo(x: 123) echo a[] var x = [0, 100, 300] let ptrTox = x[1].addr echo ptrTox[]
Example output:
(x: 123) 100
Define $ proc for ref type. $ proc converts given argument to string. $ is implicitly called when each arguments of echo are stringified.
type Foo = ref object x: int proc `$`(foo: Foo): string = "Foo: " & $foo.x let a = Foo(x: 123) echo a
Example output:
Foo: 123Or use https://github.com/treeform/pretty
ref object, seq and string are actually pointer to the heap memory that contains the content. So using sizeof to these type returns size of pointer. You can get size of the content using len proc to seq/string.
import std/sugar type Foo = ref object x: array[123, int] dump sizeof(Foo) dump sizeof(Foo()[]) let f = new Foo dump sizeof(f) dump sizeof(f[]) dump sizeof(@[1, 2, 3]) let s = @[1, 2, 3] dump sizeof(s[0]) * s.len dump sizeof("foo") let str = "foo" dump sizeof(str) dump str.len
Output:
sizeof(Foo) = 8 sizeof(Foo()[]) = 984 sizeof(f) = 8 sizeof(f[]) = 984 sizeof(@[1, 2, 3]) = 8 sizeof(s[0]) * s.len = 24 sizeof("foo") = 8 sizeof(str) = 8 str.len = 3
It is just an example output. Actual size of these types can be different when ARC/ORC is used or on 32bit CPU.
Nim is a white-space-sensitive language.
For example:
# `+` operator is used as a binary operator echo 1 + 1 # Removed the space between '+' and '1'. # Then `+` operator is used as an unary operator. # And this is compile error echo 1 +1
proc foo(x, y: int) = echo x, ", ", y # Call foo with 2 ints. foo(1, 2) # If you put a space between 'foo' and '(1, 2), # it become calling foo with a tuple (1, 2) in command invocation syntax # It results in compile error as there is no `foo` that takes a tuple. foo (1, 2)
If you want to see how Nim parses your code, use dumpTree macro in macros module:
import std/macros dumpTree: echo 1 + 1 echo 1 +1
Output:
StmtList Command Ident "echo" Infix Ident "+" IntLit 1 IntLit 1 Command Ident "echo" Command IntLit 1 Prefix Ident "+" IntLit 1
No.
You can use runes iterator in unicode module. unicode module provides support to handle the Unicode UTF-8 encoding.
import std/unicode for c in "○△□◇".runes: echo c
Output:
○ △ □ ◇
If the output didn't displayed correctly, save source code as UTF-8 encode. Configure your console to use UTF-8 encode and use a font that support UTF-8 characters.
You can do it by using named block.
For example:
block myblock: for i in 0..3: for j in 0..3: if i + j == 4: break myblock else: echo i, ", ", j
Templates or macros like this can be used for simpler code: https://github.com/demotomohiro/littlesugar
template namedWhile(name, cond, body: untyped): untyped = block name: while cond: body var x = 5 namedWhile(myblock, x > 0): for i in 0..2: if x == 4 and i == 1: break myblock echo x, ", ", i dec x
fieldPairs and fields iterators in iterators standard module can do: https://nim-lang.org/docs/iterators.html
For example:
type MyObj = object name: string num: int value: float var x = MyObj(name: "foo", num: 2, value: 3.1) for i in x.fields: echo i
When for loop is used without explicitly specifying the iterator, item or pairs iterator is implicitly invoked. These iterators forbid modifying items.
mitems and mpairs iterators in iterators standard module allow modifying items: https://nim-lang.org/docs/iterators.html
For example:
var myarray = [1, 2, 3] for i in myarray.mitems: i += 2 echo myarray
You can define procedures that can be used like operators.
For example:
type MyVector = object data: array[3, float] # You can call this proc like x + y proc `+`(x, y: MyVector): MyVector = for i in 0..2: result.data[i] = x.data[i] + y.data[i] let x = MyVector(data: [1.0, 2, 3]) y = MyVector(data: [4.0, 2, 0]) echo x + y proc `-`(x: MyVector): MyVector = for i in 0..2: result.data[i] = -x.data[i] echo -x # Customize how MyVector is stringified. proc `$`(x: MyVector): string = result = "MyVector(" for i in 0..2: result.add $x.data[i] if i < 2: result.add ", " result.add ")" echo x type MyMatrix = object data: array[4, float] # You can read an element in a matrix like mat[i, j] proc `[]`(x: MyMatrix; i, j: int): float = x.data[i + j * 2] # You can set an element in a matrix like mat[i, j] = x proc `[]=`(x: var MyMatrix; i, j: int; v: float) = x.data[i + j * 2] = v var mat = MyMatrix(data: [0.0, 1, 2, 3]) echo mat[0, 1] mat[1, 1] = -1 echo mat
See also:
There are 3 ways to create user defined pragmas:
For example:
var testArray = [11.cint, 22, 33] proc cfunc(): ptr cint = testArray[0].addr var p = cast[ptr UncheckedArray[cint]](cfunc()) doAssert p[0] == 11 doAssert p[1] == 22 p[2] += 11 doAssert p[2] == 44
https://forum.nim-lang.org/t/8188
For non-holey enum types:
# Thank you PMunch! type MyEnum = enum A B C proc toEnum*[T](x: int): T = if x in T.low.int..T.high.int: T(x) else: raise newException(ValueError, "Value not convertible to enum") var a = 2 echo toEnum[MyEnum](a) var b = 100 # Error: unhandled exception: Value not convertible to enum [ValueError] echo toEnum[MyEnum](b)
For enum types that can be non-holey or holey:
# Thank you Elegantbeef! import std/macros type MyEnum = enum A B C HoleyEnum = enum AVal = 3 BVal = 5 CVal = 9 macro enumElementsAsSet(enm: typed): untyped = newNimNode(nnkCurly).add(enm.getType[1][1..^1]) proc toEnum*(val: SomeInteger, E: typedesc[enum]): E = const enmRange = E.low.ord .. E.high.ord when E is Ordinal: if val in enmRange: E(val) else: raise (ref ValueError)(msg: $val & " cannot be converted to the enum: " & $E) else: if val in enmRange and val.E in E.enumElementsAsSet: E(val) else: raise (ref ValueError)(msg: $val & " cannot be converted to the enum: " & $E) var a = 5 # Error: unhandled exception: 5 cannot be converted to the enum: MyEnum [ValueError] let b = a.toEnum(MyEnum) # Error: unhandled exception: 4 cannot be converted to the enum: HoleyEnum [ValueError] let c = 4.toEnum(HoleyEnum)
Yes you can.
const π = 3.141 proc area□(w, h: float): float = w * h proc area○(radius: float): float = π * radius * radius echo area□(3.0, 5.0) echo area○(2.0)
You can use specific unicodes for operators: https://nim-lang.org/docs/manual.html#lexical-analysis-unicode-operators
func `±`[T](x: T): (T, T) = (x, -x) doAssert ±3 == (3, -3) func `∪`[T](x, y: set[T]): set[T] = x + y doAssert ({1, 2, 3} ∪ {2, 3, 4}) == {1, 2, 3, 4}
https://forum.nim-lang.org/t/10353
Variables declared outside procedures are global variables and declared inside procedures are local variables.
# Global variable var globalVar = 123 proc bar() = # Local variable var localVar = 456
You can add an export maker '*' to a global variable to make it accessible in other modules, but you cannot add it to local variables.
var globalVar* = 123 proc bar() = # Compile error: 'export' is only allowed at top level var localVar* = 456
Global variables lives while the program is running. Local variables are valid until exiting enclosing block or procedure. That means returning an address of global variable in a procedure is safe but returning an address of local variable is unsafe.
type SomeObj = object name: string proc `=destroy`(x: SomeObj) = echo "Destroy ", x.name var globalVar = SomeObj(name: "globalVar") proc bar() = block: var localVarInBlock = SomeObj(name: "localVarInBlock") echo localVarInBlock var localVar = SomeObj(name: "localVar") echo localVar echo globalVar bar() echo "End of program"
Output:
(name: "globalVar") (name: "localVarInBlock") Destroy localVarInBlock (name: "localVar") Destroy localVar End of program Destroy globalVar
Global variables are stored in data segment (translated to C global variables when compiled with C backend) and local variables are stored in stack. So declaring a large global variable works as long as there are enough memory but a large local variable can cause segmentation fault.
import std/os var globalArray: array[10_000_000, int] proc bar() = # Segmentatioon fault var localArray: array[10_000_000, int] echo "localArray: ", localArray[paramCount()] echo "globalArray: ", globalArray[paramCount()] bar()
When multiple threads are created, global variables without threadvar pragma are not created for each threads and shared by threads. So you need to use a lock to access global variables because reading and writing to the same memory location from multiple threads at the same time is undefined behavier unless it is an atomic variable. Local variables are created for each threads and not shared. So local variables in one thread are not read or written by other thread (as long as you don't share an address of local variabe to other thread) and you don't need to use a lock to access them.
import std/locks var globalVar = 1 thread1, thread2: Thread[int] lock: Lock proc threadProc(threadID: int) {.thread.} = var localVar: int withLock(lock): localVar = globalVar echo "ThreadID: ", threadID echo "globalVar: ", globalVar echo "localVar: ", localVar echo "addr localVar: ", cast[uint](addr localVar) echo "addr globalVar: ", cast[uint](addr globalVar) inc globalVar initLock(lock) createThread(thread1, threadProc, 1) createThread(thread2, threadProc, 2) joinThread(thread1) joinThread(thread2) deinitLock(lock)
Output:
ThreadID: 2 globalVar: 1 localVar: 1 addr localVar: 140647661780424 addr globalVar: 94229087072600 ThreadID: 1 globalVar: 2 localVar: 2 addr localVar: 140647663893960 addr globalVar: 94229087072600
If the global pragma is applied to a local variable, it works like a global variable but you cannot access it outside the enclosing procedure. It is initialized once at program startup and holds the value after exiting the procedure.
import os proc foo(x: int) = var g {.global.} = 0 g += x echo g foo(1) foo(2) foo(3) # Compile Error: undeclared identifier: 'g' #echo g
Output:
1 3 6
You can use seq as stack. Use add for push, and pop.
var stack: seq[int] stack.add 123 doAssert stack.pop == 123 doAssert stack.len == 0
Nim programming language is designed so that you can write safe code. But there are cases you need to write unsafe code. Using C/C++ functions, writing low level code or faster code might requires to write unsafe code. Nim provides features for such cases.
When you use unsafe features, your program passes all tests and looks like work correctly doesn't mean unsafe code is written correclty. Invalid code doesn't always crach your program or return random results. It might behave correclty now but it might stop working when you change other code or compile options or run it on the customers machine.
Unsafe code can be found by searching following keywords.
pointer, ptr and addr
You can use raw pointers and Nim doesn't stop you to write unsafe code. https://nim-lang.org/docs/manual.html#statements-and-expressions-the-addr-operator
C functions often have pointer type parameters and a return type. You need to know how C, Nim and the C function use the memory to write safe code. You cannot know how to safely pass pointers to the C function only from the C function declaration. You would need to read the manual or reference of the library to safely use it.
Type casts
https://nim-lang.org/docs/manual.html#statements-and-expressions-type-casts
Type casts are a crude mechanism to interpret the bit pattern of an expression as if it would be of another type. Type casts are only needed for low-level programming and are inherently unsafe.
cast doesn't convert float value 1.0 to int value 1. cast[int](1.0) would looks like a random number, if you don't know about IEEE 754. If you just want to convert float to int, do type conversion like int(floatVar).
cast[array[2, int]](@[10, 100]) doesn't return [10, 100] as seq has the different data structure from array.
noinit pragma
https://nim-lang.org/docs/manual.html#statements-and-expressions-var-statement
You might get random values from variables with noinit pragma when you read them without initializing them.
Nim doesn't check errors in the code in emit pragma or asm statement.
-d:danger
https://nim-lang.org/docs/nimc.html#additional-compilation-switches
Turn off all runtime checks.
--mm:none
https://nim-lang.org/docs/mm.html
No memory management strategy nor a garbage collector. Allocated memory is simply never freed.
You should check if manual memory management really makes your program faster than --mm:arc.
Types with 'c' prefix are corresponding to types in C language. cint is same to int in C and cfloat is same to float in C. They are used when you use C functions. sizeof(cint/cfloat) can be different from sizeof(int/float). Size of C types vary depending on the OS, CPU or backend C compiler. cint can be 32bits even on 64bit CPU (See 64-bit data models).
Bitwidth of int in Nim is always the same as a pointer (https://nim-lang.org/docs/system.html#int).
float in Nim is always 64bit (https://nim-lang.org/docs/manual.html#types-preminusdefined-floatingminuspoint-types).
You cannot define recursive object type in following way because object type is a value type and recursive object type needs infinite amount of memory:
type Foo = object child: Foo BarX = object y: BarY BarY = object x: BarX
You can use ref object type in following way:
type Foo = ref object child: Foo BarX = ref object y: BarY BarY = ref object x: BarX var foo = Foo(child: Foo()) echo foo[].repr var bar = BarX(y: BarY(x: BarX())) echo bar[].repr
Use seq or other collection types that store values in heap:
type Foo = object child: seq[Foo] let foo = Foo(child: @[Foo(), Foo()]) echo foo import std/tables type Bar = object table: Table[string, Bar] let bar = Bar(table: toTable {"abc": Bar(), "xyz": Bar()}) echo bar
type Foo[T] = object x: T Bar = Foo[char] let foo = Foo[float](x: 12.3) echo foo.T echo Bar.T
Reference types (ref object) refer an object on heap. Mutiple references can refer an object. Reference types are actually pointers and Nim manage referenced objects so that you can use them safely.
type MyObj = object x: int MyRefObj = ref MyObj # Variables declared outside of procedures are on static storage. # Static storage lives while the program is running and its size is fixed. # Variables on static storage can be accessed by any procedures in same module. # And if they have export mark, can be accessed by any procedures in other modules importing it. let myObj = MyObj() # Exists on static storage myRefObj = MyRefObj() # myRefObj exists on static storage and points to MyObj type object created on heap proc myProc() = # Variables declared inside of procedures are on stack. # Stacks are created when a procedure is called and freed when returning from it. var myObjInProc = MyObj() # Exists on stack myRefObjInProc = MyRefObj() # myRefObjInProc exists on stack and points to MyObj type object created on heap let myObjInProc2 = myObjInProc # myObjInProc2 exists on stack and myObjInProc is copied to myObjInProc2 myRefObjInProc2 = myRefObjInProc # myRefObjInProc2 exists on stack and myRefObjInProc and myRefObjInProc2 points to same object myObjInProc.x = 123 doAssert myObjInProc.x == 123 doAssert myObjInProc2.x == 0 myRefObjInProc.x = 321 doAssert myRefObjInProc.x == 321 doAssert myRefObjInProc2.x == 321 myRefObjInProc2[] = myObjInProc # `[]` operator dereference a reference type # myObjInProc is copied to the object myRefObjInProc2 points doAssert myRefObjInProc.x == 123 doAssert myRefObjInProc2.x == 123 var myObjInSeq = newSeq[MyObj](4) # 4 MyObj exist on heap contiguously myRefObjInSeq = newSeq[MyRefObj](4) # 4 MyRefObj exist on heap contiguously and they are nil myRefObjInSeq2 = @[MyRefObj(x: 1), MyRefObj(x: 2), MyRefObj(x: 3), MyRefObj(x: 4)] # each 4 MyRefObj points to 4 MyObj on heap respectively. # These 4 MyObj might not placed on heap contiguously. myObjInSeq[0] = myObjInProc # myObjInProc is copied to myObjInSeq[0] myRefObjInSeq[0] = myRefObjInProc myRefObjInSeq[1] = myRefObjInProc2 # myRefObjInSeq[0], myRefObjInSeq[1], myRefObjInProc and myRefObjInProc2 refers same MyObj myRefObjInSeq[2] = MyRefObj() # New MyObj is created on heap and myRefObjInSeq[2] refers it # The stack allocated for all variables in this proc is freed. # So all objects referenced by ref types in this scope are freed because there is no reference refers them. myProc() type SomeObj = object x: int o1: MyObj o2: MyObj # x, o1, o2, o3 are placed on the memory contiguously o3: MyRefObj SomeRefObj = ref SomeObj proc myNextProc = var s = SomeObj(o3: MyRefObj()) # s.o3 refers MyObj on heap s2 = SomeRefObj(o3: s.o3) # SomeObj is created on heap. That means all fields of s2 (x, o1, o2, o3) are on heap. myNextProc() type DontCopyMe = object x: int # This proc makes copying `DontCopyMe` compile error. proc `=copy`(dest: var DontCopyMe; src: DontCopyMe) {.error.} var x, y: DontCopyMe # This code generates compile error # y = x echo x, y type BaseObj = object of RootObj x: int BaseRefObj = ref BaseObj InheritObj = object of BaseObj y: int InheritObj2 = object of BaseObj InheritRefObj = ref InheritObj InheritRefObj2 = ref InheritObj2 proc testInheritance = var a = InheritObj(x: 7) b: BaseObj = a # Copies only BaseObj part of InheritObj to b echo b # echo InheritObj(b) # Invalid object conversion var inheritRef = InheritRefObj(y: 1234) baseRef: BaseRefObj = inheritRef # baseRef points to InheritObj doAssert baseRef of InheritRefObj doAssert not (baseRef of InheritRefObj2) doAssert InheritRefObj(baseRef).y == 1234 testInheritance()
Procedures can take or return uncopyable objects but there are restrictions. There are cases you need to add sink to parameters or lent to return type.
type DontCopyMe = object x: int # Make copying `DontCopyMe` compile error proc `=copy`(dest: var DontCopyMe; src: DontCopyMe) {.error.} # See when move happen to `DontCopyMe` proc `=sink`(dest: var DontCopyMe; src: DontCopyMe) = echo "Sink! ", src.x dest.x = src.x func getX(x: DontCopyMe): int = x.x proc init(T: typedesc[DontCopyMe]; x: int): DontCopyMe = DontCopyMe(x: x) # func retAsIs(x: DontCopyMe): DontCopyMe = x # Error: '=copy' is not available for type <DontCopyMe> # proc takeVarAndRet(x: var DontCopyMe): DontCopyMe = x # Error: '=copy' is not available for type <DontCopyMe> proc takeVarAndRetVar(x: var DontCopyMe): var DontCopyMe = x proc sinkAndRet(x: sink DontCopyMe): DontCopyMe = x proc retLent(x: DontCopyMe): lent DontCopyMe = x proc test = let a = DontCopyMe(x: 1) echo getX(a) var b = DontCopyMe.init(10) echo b # echo retAsIs(a) var c = DontCopyMe(x: 2) # echo takeVarAndRet(c) echo takeVarAndRetVar(c) let d = sinkAndRet(c) echo d var e = retLent(DontCopyMe(x: 3)) echo e # let f = retLent(e) # Error: '=copy' is not available for type <DontCopyMe>; test() type HaveDontCopyMe = object dont: DontCopyMe #[ proc init(T: typedesc[HaveDontCopyMe]; d: DontCopyMe): HaveDontCopyMe = HaveDontCopyMe(dont: d) ]# # Error: '=copy' is not available for type <DontCopyMe> proc init(T: typedesc[HaveDontCopyMe]; d: sink DontCopyMe): HaveDontCopyMe = HaveDontCopyMe(dont: d) # func getDontCopyMe(x: HaveDontCopyMe): DontCopyMe = x.dont # Error: '=copy' is not available for type <DontCopyMe>; func getDontCopyMeLent(x: HaveDontCopyMe): lent DontCopyMe = x.dont func getDontCopyMeVar(x: var HaveDontCopyMe): var DontCopyMe = x.dont # proc setDontCopyMe(x: var HaveDontCopyMe; y: DontCopyMe) = x.dont = y # Error: '=copy' is not available for type <DontCopyMe>; func setDontCopyMeSink(x: var HaveDontCopyMe; y: sink DontCopyMe) = x.dont = y proc test2 = let a = HaveDontCopyMe.init(DontCopyMe(x: 100)) echo a # let b = a.getDontCopyMe() # echo a.getDontCopyMe() # let c = a.getDontCopyMeLent() # echo c echo a.getDontCopyMeLent() var d = HaveDontCopyMe.init(DontCopyMe(x: 110)) d.getDontCopyMeVar().x = 111 echo d # var e = HaveDontCopyMe.init(DontCopyMe(x: 120)) # e.setDontCopyMe(DontCopyMe(x: 121)) # echo e var f = HaveDontCopyMe.init(DontCopyMe(x: 130)) f.setDontCopyMeSink(DontCopyMe(x: 131)) echo f var ff = DontCopyMe(x: 142) f.setDontCopyMeSink(ff) echo f # echo ff # Reading `ff` cause compile error to `f.setDontCopyMeSink(ff)` in above line test2()
You can use uncopyable object types with seq but there are restrictions.
type DontCopyMe = object x: int # Make copying DontCopyMe compile error proc `=copy`(dest: var DontCopyMe; src: DontCopyMe) {.error.} proc `=sink`(dest: var DontCopyMe; src: DontCopyMe) = echo "Sink! ", src.x dest.x = src.x var s: seq[DontCopyMe] s.add(DontCopyMe(x: 1)) s.add( block: var a = DontCopyMe(x: 2); a) echo s s.setLen(64) echo s[^1] s.insert(DontCopyMe(x: 3), 60) echo s block: var sa = @[DontCopyMe(x: 4), DontCopyMe(x: 5)] sb = @[DontCopyMe(x: 6), DontCopyMe(x: 7)] # echo sa & sb # Error: '=copy' is not available for type <seq[DontCopyMe]> block: var a = DontCopyMe(x: 3) # s.add(a) # Compile error: '=copy' is not available for type <DontCopyMe>; requires a copy because it's not the last read of 'a'; routine: testobj # Variables in outside of procedures cannot be moved? proc test = block: var sl: seq[DontCopyMe] a = DontCopyMe(x: 11) sl.add(a) echo sl # echo a # Reading `a` makes `sl.add(a)` in above line to compile error block: var sl = @[DontCopyMe(x: 21)] a = sl[0] echo a # echo sl # Reading `sl` makes `a = sl[0]` in above line to compile error # sl.add DontCopyMe(x: 22) # Adding new element also makes `a = sl[0]` to compile error sl = @[DontCopyMe(x: 23), DontCopyMe(x: 24)] var b = sl[0] c = sl[1] echo b, c sl = @[DontCopyMe(x: 25), DontCopyMe(x: 26)] var idx = (cast[int](addr sl[0]) shr 5) and 1 # Get a runtime value that compiler cannot see d = sl[idx] #e = sl[idx xor 1] # Error: '=copy' is not available for type <DontCopyMe> echo d block: var sl = @[DontCopyMe(x: 31), DontCopyMe(x: 32)] a = sl.pop doAssert sl.len == 1 doAssert a == DontCopyMe(x: 32) echo sl echo a block: var sa = @[DontCopyMe(x: 44), DontCopyMe(x: 45)] sb = @[DontCopyMe(x: 46), DontCopyMe(x: 47)] sab = sa & sb echo sab # echo sa # Reading `sa` makes `sab = sa & sb` in above line to compile error test()
You cannot store different types in seq. Each elements in seq are placed in memory continuously and you can random access each elements in O(1) because it stores only 1 type.
Workarounds:
# Thank you Elegantbeef! type BoxBase = ref object of RootObj Boxed[T] = ref object of BoxBase data: T proc boxed[T](a: T): Boxed[T] = Boxed[T](data: a) var a = @[BoxBase boxed"hello", boxed(10), boxed(30'd)] for x in a: if x of Boxed[int]: echo "int ", Boxed[int](x).data elif x of Boxed[float]: echo "float ", Boxed[float](x).data elif x of Boxed[string]: echo "string ", Boxed[string](x).data
Object types can inherit from existing object if it is RootObj, inherits from RootObj or has inheritable pragma. Objects with inheritance enabled has hidden runtime type information so that you can use of operator to determine the object's type. In other words, objects without inheritance don't have runtime type information.
pure pragma works to enum type differently: https://nim-lang.org/docs/manual.html#types-enumeration-types
pure pragma remove the runtime type information even if an object can be inherit from. Then you cannot use of operator to such an object.
type PureBase {.pure, inheritable.} = object x: int64 NonPureBase = object of RootObj x: int64 FromPure = object of PureBase y: int64 FromNonPure = object of NonPureBase y: int64 NotInheriable = object x: int64 y: int64 proc test(a: PureBase) = # Error: no 'of' operator available for pure objects if a of FromPure: echo "FromPure" proc test(a: NonPureBase) = if a of FromNonPure: echo "FromNonPure" var pureObj = FromPure() nonPureObj = FromNonPure() echo sizeof(NotInheriable) # 16 echo sizeof(pureObj) # 16 echo sizeof(nonPureObj) # 24 test(pureObj) test(nonPureObj)
pure pragma should be used with inheritable pragma. It doesn't works when an object inherits from RootObj.
type PureRoot {.pure.} = object of RootObj x: int64 FromPureRoot = object of PureRoot y: int64 proc test(a: PureRoot) = # You can use of operator if a of FromPureRoot: echo "FromPureRoot" var fromPureRoot = FromPureRoot() echo sizeof(fromPureRoot) # 24 test(fromPureRoot)
Even if proc signature is the same, proc types doesn't match if the calling conventions were different: https://nim-lang.org/docs/manual.html#types-procedural-type
For example:
proc foo(x: int): int = x + x proc bar(x: int): int {.cdecl.} = x * x proc calls(x: int; callback: proc(x: int): int {.nimcall.}): int = callback(x * 2) echo calls(3, foo) # Error: type mismatch echo calls(4, bar) proc calls2(x: int; callback: proc(x: int): int {.closure.}): int = callback(x + 1) echo calls2(3, foo) # Error: type mismatch echo calls2(4, bar)
See also: Why assigning procedures to variables causes compile error?
Nim language doesn't have class method. But you can define a procedure similar to class method.
type Foo = object x: int proc myClassMethod(f: typedesc[Foo]; param: int): Foo = Foo(x: param) let foo = myClassMethod(Foo, 123) echo foo
Type conversion can be used to disambiguate overloaded routines.
proc foo(x: int) = echo x proc foo(x: string) = echo x # Compile error #let pfoo = foo let pfoo1: proc (x: int) = foo pfoo1(1) let pfoo2 = (proc (x: int))foo pfoo2(2)
Specify all generic parameters or use type conversion.
proc foo[T](x: T) = echo x # Compile error #let pfoo = foo let pfoo1 = foo[int] pfoo1(1) let pfoo2: proc (x: int) = foo pfoo2(2) let pfoo3 = (proc (x: int))foo pfoo3(3)
proc foo(x: int or string) = echo x # Compile error #let pfoo = foo let pfoo1: proc (x: int) = foo pfoo1(1) let pfoo2 = (proc (x: int))foo pfoo2(2) proc bar[T](x: int or string; y: T) = echo x, y let pbar1: proc (x: int; y: string) = bar pbar1(1, "bar") let pbar2 = (proc (x: int; y: string))bar pbar2(2, "bar")
In Nim, everything is initialized as all bits zero in default.
See:
You can assign a constant default value to an object field. But you cannot use a runtime value as a default value:
If you want to initialize objects with arguments and initializing code, people usually create createFoo or initFoo procedure.
Example code:
type Foo = object names: seq[string] proc initFoo(x: var Foo, name: string) = x.names.add name var foo: Foo foo.initFoo("abc") echo foo type Bar = ref object names: seq[string] proc createBar(name: string): Bar = Bar(names: @[name]) var bar = createBar("xyz") echo bar[]
See also:
Pass them as is:
proc foo(args: varargs[string]) = for s in args: echo s let myarray = ["foo", "bar"] foo(myarray) let myseq = @["one", "two"] foo(myseq)
Output:
foo bar one two
Function is a procedure with noSideEffect pragma.
You cannot change return type because Nim is a statically typed programming language.
Workarounds:
We call a procedure p GC safe when it doesn't access any global variable that contains GC'ed memory (string, seq, ref or a closure) either directly or indirectly through a call to a GC unsafe proc.
It is related to Nim's memory model for threads.
Meaning of "Calling convention" in C/Assembler and Nim is bit different.
In C/Assembler, calling convention is about how parameters are passed to a function, result is returned and other low level rules for functions. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calling_convention
In C or Nim language, you see no differences between functions with different calling conventions excepts function signature has different calling convention name. But they are different in assembly or machine language level.
In some platforms, many calling conventions are used. When you call a function using a pointer to function, calling convention of the function pointer type and the calling convention of the function being called must be the same. If they are different, it results in compile error or undefined behavier. When you call a C function from Nim and pass a pointer to Nim procedure to the C function, calling convention of the Nim procedure must be the same calling convention to the C function pointer type of the parameter.
stdcall, cdecl, safecall, fastcall, thiscall, syscall are C/C++/Assembler calling conventions and they are explained here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86_calling_conventions
In Nim, calling convention is about C/Assembler calling convention, how Nim generate C code from Nim procedure and higher level things. This section in Nim manual lists Nim calling conventions: https://nim-lang.org/docs/manual.html#types-procedural-type
A subtle issue with procedural types is that the calling convention of the procedure influences the type compatibility: procedural types are only compatible if they have the same calling convention. As a special extension, a procedure of the calling convention nimcall can be passed to a parameter that expects a proc of the calling convention closure.
Example code:
type # MyProcType is closure MyProcType = proc (x: int) # Calling convention of myProc is `nimcall` and not closure. proc myProc(x: int) = echo x echo MyProcType is proc (x: int) {.closure.} # true echo MyProcType is proc (x: int) {.nimcall.} # false echo myProc is proc (x: int) {.closure.} # false echo myProc is proc (x: int) {.nimcall.} # true var a: MyProcType = myProc a(123) type MyProcType2 = proc (x: int) {.nimcall.} var b: array[2, MyProcType2] = [myproc, myproc] b[0](123) # type mismatch: got 'array[0..1, proc (x: int){.gcsafe.}]' for '[myProc, myProc]' but expected 'array[0..1, MyProcType]' # Calling convention mismatch: got '{.nimcall.}', but expected '{.closure.}' #var c: array[2, MyProcType] = [myproc, myproc] #c[0](321)
proc foo(x: int): int = echo x x + 1 # The type of myProc is the same to the type of foo. # Because nimcall is the default calling convention used for a Nim proc, # the calling convention of myProc is nimcall. var myProc = foo # if the calling convention of myProc was closure, there is no compile error. # closure is the default calling convention for a procedural type that lacks any pragma annotations. # You can assign a procedure of the calling convention nimcall to a procedural type variable of the calling convention closure. #var myProc: proc (x: int): int = foo echo myProc is proc (x: int): int {.nimcall.} # true echo myProc is proc (x: int): int # false let y = 3 # This compiles as this proc is not a closure. myProc = proc (x: int): int = x + y echo myProc(2) proc getSomeProc(y: int): proc (x: int): int = let z = y * y # Only closure calling convention can capture local variables. proc (x: int): int = x + z # Error: type mismatch # Because getSomeProc return a proc with closure calling convention. myProc = getSomeProc(100) echo myProc(1)
proc foo[T](x: string) = echo T, x "Test".foo[:int]
See: Method call syntax
Run your code in nim c myprogram.nim that completes before Nim output executable file or print error.
Expression in const statement is evaluated at compile time:
proc collatz(n: int): int = var x = n while x != 1: if x mod 2 == 0: x = x div 2 else: x = 3 * x + 1 inc result # collatz(12) is executed at compile time. const a = collatz(12) # collatz(12) is executed at runtime time. let b = collatz(12) echo a echo b
Use static statement/expression:
proc foo(x, y: int): int = when nimvm: x else: y # Executed at runtime let v = foo(1, 2) echo v # foo(1, 2) is executed at compile time let w = static foo(1, 2) echo w # Following statement is executed at compile time static: var x = foo(1, 2) x = x * 7 echo "This message is displayed at compile time" echo x
Yes, there is restrictions
Templates in Nim can be called like procedures and it works as if it inserts code in the call site.
It is similar to macros in C language but safer and nicer.
For example:
template foo(x: string): untyped = echo "From template foo" echo x echo "Calling template foo" foo("test")
Output:
Calling template foo From template foo test
A difference between templates and procedures is templates can take a name and create a new variable/procedure with it in current scope or take code block. It can also takes inline iterators using iterable type class.
For example:
template defineProc(procName: untyped): untyped = proc procName() = echo "Procedure defined in template" defineProc(myProcedure) myProcedure() template declareVar(varName: untyped): untyped = var varName {.inject.} = "Variable declared in template" declareVar(myVariable) echo myVariable
Output:
Procedure defined in template Variable declared in template
Example code that takes code block:
import std/[times, os] template measureTime(body: untyped): untyped = block: let begin = epochTime() body let delta = epochTime() - begin echo "Time: ", delta measureTime: os.sleep(500) os.sleep(600)
Output :
Time: 1.100237131118774Example code that takes inline iterator:
iterator myIter(n: openArray[int]): int = for i in n: yield i * i template myTemplate(iter: iterable[int]): int = var sum = 0 for i in iter: sum += i sum echo myTemplate(myIter(@[-1, 0, 1])) echo myTemplate(1..3)
Output:
2 6
Other difference is, when a procedure is called, all arguments are evaluated before the procedure runs. In template, template body is inserted to the call site and all arguments are placed there as is.
Example code:
var c = 0 proc procWithSideEffect(): int = inc c echo "procWithSideEffect has been called ", c, " times" c proc testProc(cond: bool; x, y: int) = echo "In testProc" if cond: echo "x = ", x else: echo "y = ", y echo "Call testProc" testProc(true, procWithSideEffect(), procWithSideEffect()) template testTmpl(cond: bool; x, y: int) = echo "In testTmpl" if cond: echo "x = ", x else: echo "y = ", y echo "\nCall testTmpl" # Content of testTmpl is inserted here and x and y in it are replaced with procWithSideEffect() testTmpl(true, procWithSideEffect(), procWithSideEffect()) proc squareProc(x: int) = echo "In squareProc" echo x, " * ", x, " = ", x * x echo "\nCall squareProc" squareProc(procWithSideEffect()) template squareTmpl(x: int) = echo "In squareTmpl" echo x, " * ", x, " = ", x * x echo "\nCall squareTmpl" squareTmpl(procWithSideEffect())
Call testProc procWithSideEffect has been called 1 times procWithSideEffect has been called 2 times In testProc x = 1 Call testTmpl In testTmpl procWithSideEffect has been called 3 times x = 3 Call squareProc procWithSideEffect has been called 4 times In squareProc 4 * 4 = 16 Call squareTmpl In squareTmpl procWithSideEffect has been called 5 times procWithSideEffect has been called 6 times procWithSideEffect has been called 7 times procWithSideEffect has been called 8 times 5 * 6 = 56
You can assign a procedure to a procedural type variable, but you cannot assign a template to a variable because templates exist only at compile time.
See also:
You can pass undeclared identifiers to untyped parameters to declare new variables or procedures. Or you can pass expressions/statements/code blocks that contain undeclared identifiers and use variables or procedures inside the template.
See also:
You can pass any expressions or statements to typed parameter as long as they are valid Nim code and don't use undeclared identifiers.
If your template take expressions or statements that use variables declared in the template, you need to use untyped parameter, not typed.
See also:
You cannot use method call syntax when first parameter of a template/macro is untyped.
See also:
If you want to use variables or types declared in template outside of it, you need to use inject pragma. You can use procedures, iterators, converters, templates or macros defined in template outside of it without inject pragma.
For example:
template declVarAndType(body: untyped): untyped = type Foo {.inject.} = object x: int var myVar {.inject.} = "Variable in template" body declVarAndType: let f = Foo() echo myVar let g = Foo(x: 123) echo myVar
See also:
You can pass multiple code blocks to a template or macro using do notation.
For example:
template foo(x: bool; bodyA, bodyB: untyped): untyped = if x: bodyA else: bodyB foo(false) do: echo "bodyA" do: echo "bodyB"
type cstringConstImpl {.importc:"const char*".} = cstring constChar* = distinct cstringConstImpl {.emit: "const char* foo() {return \"hello\";}".} proc foo(): constChar {.importc.} # change to importcpp for C++ backend echo foo().cstring
See also: Official Nim Compiler User Guide
You can use Nim compiler on android using Termux. You can install Nim on Termux with pkg install nim command.
*.cfg: https://nim-lang.org/docs/nimc.html#compiler-usage-configuration-files
*.nims: https://nim-lang.org/docs/nims.html
There are 2 ways to produce assembler code:
Or
Compile your code with --app:gui option like:
$ nim c --app:gui myprog.nim
For example:
import winim doAssert MessageBoxA(0, "Hello world", "Nim", MB_OK)
When you start your program on windows explorer, new console window will open if you compiled it without --app:gui option.
$ nim c test myprog.nim
If you compile it with --app:gui, your program runs without opening console window.
Nim and tools distributed with Nim are neither virus nor malwares. They are safe to use.
Many people reported Nim and executables compiled with Nim were detected by antivirus softwares but they are false positive.
It seems Nim was used to write malware and it might related to false detections by many Antivirus softwares:
And it seems antivirus softwares don't analyze the program carefully, but just alarm when they spot a bit pattern that has been seem in other malware.
Please do not write malware in Nim.
If you use gcc or clang backend compiler,
Example command:
$ nim c -d:danger -d:lto --passC:"-march=native" test.nim
If you use gcc or clang backend compiler,
Example command:
$ nim c -d:danger --mm:arc -d:lto -d:strip --opt:size test.nim
See Nim Compiler User Guide for more details.
Pass -d:release or -d:danger option to Nim. Nim optimize code when they are specified. With -d:release runtime checks are enabled but -d:danger removes any runtime checks.
Nim can be as fast as C or Rust without turn off memory management. Using GC doesn't mean every objects are placed on heap. You can choose to place arrays or objects in stack and they are not managed by GC. You can control memory layout of data structure like C.
type Vec3 = object x, y, z: float32 Triangle = object v: array[3, Vec3] # float32 are placed on memory continuously doAssert sizeof(array[16, Triangle]) == sizeof(float32) * 3 * 3 * 16
RefC (Default Garbage collector), ORC and ARC don't start garbage collection at random timing. If you don't allocate new heap in inner loop, garbage collection doesn't start in the loop.
These memory managements add a counter to each heap memory. Most of case, memory usage increase due to a counter is tiny because objects allocated in the heap is larger than a counter. As they don't use atomic instruction, cost of incrementing/decrementing counter is tiny unless you just copy reference types and don't do other thing. The Nim compiler also aggressively optimizes away RC ops and exploits move semantics.
Nim do dead code elimination.
Like templates work as if it inserts Nim code where it is called, macros work as if it inserts some code where it is called. Unlike template, you construct a data structure called "abstract syntax tree" (AST) in macro.
An AST is a tree data consists of nodes that is easy to handle for compiler and macro. When Nim compiles your code, it constructs AST from your source code. Some nodes have variable number of other nodes as children, and other nodes are leaf nodes don't have child. Reaf nodes correspond to number/string literals or name of variable, procedure, iterator, etc. Nodes also have kind field.
For example, expression x + 123 (x is int variable) becomes a node with Infix kind that has 3 children, Ident (identifier) kind node with name "+", Ident kind node with name "x" and IntLit (int literal) kind node with number "123".
Following code prints AST of x + 123 using dumpTree in macros module at compile time:
import macros let x = 1 dumpTree(x + 123)
Output:
Infix Ident "+" Ident "x" IntLit 123
You can use dumpTree to prints AST of any Nim code:
import macros dumpTree: let x = 1 echo x + 123
Output:
StmtList LetSection IdentDefs Ident "x" Empty IntLit 1 Command Ident "echo" Infix Ident "+" Ident "x" IntLit 123
NimNode type repesents a node in AST and NimNodeKind enum repesents a kind of node.
Macros can take expressions or statements and they become NimNode AST in macro. So you can access any child nodes inside given nodes. You can analyze given expressions or statements in macro. You can transform them to construct new AST or just put them inside newly created AST and return it. AST you constructed and returned in your macro is inserted in where your macro is called.
Writing a Nim macro is like a writing a program that program a program.
A macro with int type parameters takes any expression with int and it become NimNode in the macro:
import macros macro foo(x: int): untyped = echo typeof(x) echo x.treeRepr var x = 1 y = 2 foo(x + y)
Output:
NimNode Infix Sym "+" Sym "x" Sym "y"
If you want to write a macro that takes int value as is, use static[int]:
import macros macro foo(x: static[int]): untyped = echo typeof(x) echo x foo(123)
Output:
int 123
Macro can call procedures as long as it can be executed at compile time. You can implement procedures that can transform AST like you do in macros using NimNode parameters and return type.
import macros proc addEcho(x: NimNode): NimNode = newCall(bindSym"echo", x) macro fooEcho(x: string): untyped = x.addEcho macro fooEcho(x: int): untyped = x.addEcho fooEcho("test") fooEcho(100 + 23)
import macros macro foo(x: float): untyped = echo "treeRepr:" echo x.treeRepr echo "" echo "lispRepr:" echo x.lispRepr echo "" echo "astGenRepr:" echo x.astGenRepr echo "" echo "repr:" echo x.repr let x = 1.0 y = 10.0 foo(x + y)
Output:
treeRepr: Infix Sym "+" Sym "x" Sym "y" lispRepr: (Infix (Sym "+") (Sym "x") (Sym "y")) astGenRepr: nnkInfix.newTree( newSymNode("+"), newSymNode("x"), newSymNode("y") ) repr: x + y
You can pass multiple code blocks to a template or macro using do notation.
For example:
import macros macro foo(bodyA, bodyB: untyped): untyped = echo bodyA.treeRepr echo bodyB.treeRepr foo() do: echo "bodyA" do: echo "bodyB"
Make a macro with typed parameters and use getType or getTypeImpl proc in macros module in the macro.
For example:
import macros macro getVarType(exp: typed): untyped = echo "----" echo exp.treeRepr echo exp.getType.treeRepr echo exp.getTypeImpl.treeRepr var x = 0 getVarType(x) type Foo = object x: int getVarType(Foo(x: 10)) getVarType([1, 4, 6])
Example output:
---- Sym "x" Sym "int" Sym "int" ---- ObjConstr Sym "Foo" ExprColonExpr Sym "x" IntLit 10 ObjectTy Empty Empty RecList Sym "x" ObjectTy Empty Empty RecList IdentDefs Sym "x" Sym "int" Empty ---- Bracket IntLit 1 IntLit 4 IntLit 6 BracketExpr Sym "array" BracketExpr Sym "range" IntLit 0 IntLit 2 Sym "int" BracketExpr Sym "array" Infix Ident ".." IntLit 0 IntLit 2 Sym "int"
Chat:
Enclose your code with ```nim and ``` like:
```nim var x = 1 y = 2 echo x + y ```
You can run one line Nim code with !eval echo "Hello".
They are AIs written with Nim by AI researchers. They learn about Nim and how to talk like human. After enough amount of learning, they can ask or answer Nim questions like human.
It is joke. There is bridge between discord and other chat systems like IRC or matrix. When people in other chat system write message, discord shows it with user name and bot mark. But in the Internet, how can we know whether messages are really written by human without meeting face to face? What if someone or something answers your Nim question is extraterrestrial intelligence or genetically engineered highly intelligent dog? Is there any problems even if they talk about Nim politely?
by Tomohiro